roda do tempo 2

Ainda "A History of Modern Europe":

"The Second Industrial Revolution seemed oblivious to the long economic depression that began in 1873 and lasted until the mid-1890s. It was marked by falling prices and punctuated by financial panics, although not by prolonged unemployment or economic stagnation. Following a fever of speculation, particularly in Germany, banks failed in Vienna. The speed with which the crisis spread to other financial capitals reflected the extent to which improvements in transportation and communication during the middle decades of the nineteenth century had extended the links of an increasingly global economy. Agricultural prices fell virtually everywhere in Europe, in part because imported grain from the United States and Canada flooded markets. In every industrialized country, tariffs became the focus of impassioned political debate, even in Britain, where economic liberalism remained the prevailing credo. Governments responded to the depression by imposing protective tariffs in the interest of native industries and agriculture: Austria (1874), Russia (1875), France (1892), Italy (1887), and Germany (1902)."

presidencialismo de coalizão

John Merriman, "A History of Modern Europe":

"But sovereigns needed to woo nobles to gain their compliance. In exchange for loyalty and in many cases service, rulers confirmed noble privileges and allowed them to continue to dominate state and local government. "Tables of ranks" dividing nobles into distinct grades or ranks were established at the turn of the century by the kings of Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and Russia, making it clear that noble privileges were bestowed by monarchs. Louis XIV of France (ruled 1643-1715) asserted the right to monitor the legitimacy of all titles and even to confiscate noble estates. In 1668, he ordered the investigation of "false" nobles holding dubious titles. These measures helped the king maintain the loyalty of nobles, some of whom resented those who held titles they considered suspect. The great noble families thereafter enjoyed an even greater monopoly over the most lucrative and prestigious royal and ecclesiastical posts."